Fish oils and omega-3 oils: Benefits, foods, and risks
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In this article, learn more about fish oils and omega-3, including some potential health benefits and some good food sources.
However, studies into supplement use have produced mixed results , and it is unclear whether or not supplements are helpful.
Guidelines from the American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) recommend eating fish as part of a heart-healthy diet. Indeed, having a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids may help prevent heart disease, protect brain and eye health, and contribute to fetal development.
Many people use fish oil and omega-3 supplements because they believe that they have health benefits.
Fish oils come from fatty or oily fish, such as trout, mackerel, tuna, herring, sardines, and salmon. They contain omega-3 fatty acids, and many contain vitamins A and D.
Omega-3 is present throughout the body, especially in the brain, retina, and sperm cells. The body cannot produce omega-3 on its own, however, so people need to obtain it from dietary sources.
Two types are plentiful in oily fish: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), meanwhile, mainly occurs in plant-based foods, such as flaxseed.
Scientists have linked omega-3 to a number of health conditions. However, it is not always clear whether or not taking additional omega-3 can offer benefits.
The following sections outline some of these conditions and some other health benefits that omega-3 may provide.
COVID-19
In 2020, survey data suggested that females who take probiotics, vitamin D, fish oil supplements, or a combination of these may have a slightly lower risk of developing COVID-19.
However, this investigation has not yet undergone peer review, and the findings are far from conclusive.
In fact, experts have warned against using supplements in an attempt to prevent infection with the virus.
For more information on the COVID-19 outbreak and advice on prevention and treatment, see our live updates page and visit our coronavirus hub.
Multiple sclerosis
Some people with multiple sclerosis (MS) take omega-3 because it may have protective effects on the brain and the nervous system.
However, at least one study has concluded that omega-3 supplements do not reduce disease activity with MS.
Prostate cancer
Some research has suggested that eating a diet rich in omega-3 may help prevent prostate cancer. However, a 2013 study suggested that a high fish oil intake may actually increase the risk of high grade prostate cancer.
The precise link between omega-3 and different types of cancer remains unclear , but a number of studies have found no evidence to suggest that omega-3 either increases or reduces the risk of various types of cancer.
Postpartum depression
People with low levels of omega-3 during pregnancy and while breastfeeding may be more susceptible to postpartum depression.
The authors of a 2018 review concluded that taking fish oil supplements around this time may help reduce the risk of depression.
However, people should avoid eating fish that may be high in mercury, such as shark and king mackerel, during pregnancy. Some good alternative choices include canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish.
Memory and other mental health benefits
In addition to postpartum depression, some studies suggest that EPA and DHA could help treat various neuropsychiatric conditions. These include:
Some studies have suggested that omega-3 supplementation may help prevent cognitive decline, especially in older adults. However, their results are not conclusive, according to one 2019 review .
More investigations are necessary to confirm these benefits.
Heart and cardiovascular benefits
Omega-3 fatty acids in fish oils may help prevent heart disease and stroke, according to the AHA .
Specifically, omega-3 may help manage:
A 2013 study found that people who took fish oil supplements for longer than 1 month had better cardiovascular function during mentally stressful tests.
In 2012, researchers noted that fish oil, due to its anti-inflammatory properties, appeared to help stabilize atherosclerotic lesions.
The AHA recommend eating fish, and especially oily fish, at least twice per week. They say that this may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
However, in 2012, a review of 20 studies involving almost 70,000 people found “no compelling evidence” linking fish oil supplements to a lower risk of heart attack, stroke, or early death.
Vision loss and eye health
Some evidence suggests that getting an adequate intake of omega-3 may help protect eye health.
In a 2012 study, mice that received omega-3 supplements for 6 months appeared to have better retinal function and a lower risk of age-related vision loss than mice that did not receive the supplements.
Optometrists often recommend taking omega-3 supplements to support eye health, even though scientific evidence does not always support their use for this purpose. In some cases, eating a healthful diet may be more beneficial than taking supplements, according to some experts.
In 2019, for example, scientists who looked at the data of 4,202 people in Holland found that those who consumed fresh fruits and vegetables and 2 weekly servings of fish were less likely to develop age-related macular degeneration compared with those who did not.
Some people use omega-3 supplements for dry eyes. In 2018, however, a year-long study involving 349 people with moderate-to-severe dry eyes found no evidence to suggest that taking supplements was more helpful than taking a placebo for this purpose.
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a neurological condition. Some studies have suggested that taking omega-3 supplements may help reduce the number of seizures a person experiences.
However, a 2018 review did not find conclusive evidence to suggest that this can help prevent symptoms.
Healthy fetal development
Omega-3 consumption may help boost fetal development, especially of the brain and eyes. This is one that reason experts recommend consuming oily fish during pregnancy.
However, it is important to avoid eating fish with high levels of mercury, such as shark and king mackerel, during this time.
In 2011, scientists concluded that consuming omega-3 during pregnancy may improve memory function in school-age children.
The 7 Best Fish Oil Supplements of 2022, According to a Dietitian
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Research currently does not recommend fish oil supplementation for the following situations:
If you are healthy and not at risk of heart disease, consuming a balanced diet that includes fish will provide you with enough omega-3 fats, and there is no need to supplement with fish oil. The American Heart Association recommends one to two servings of fatty fish per week for general heart health.
Keep in mind that fish oil supplements should not replace your regular medications or other factors that contribute to a healthy lifestyle, such as a balanced diet and exercise. If you fit into one of the below groups, you should discuss fish oil supplementation with a healthcare provider.
We always recommend getting nutrients from food first whenever possible, as eating fish provides key nutrients that are not found in fish oil supplements, such as vitamins, minerals, and protein. That being said, there are certain conditions for which research modestly supports supplementing with fish oil.
Always speak with a healthcare professional before adding a supplement to your routine to ensure that the supplement is appropriate for your individual needs and which dosage to take.
There are certain things to consider when searching for a supplement. “Make sure it is third-party tested to ensure it is pure and safe and that it contains what it says on the bottle since fish oil can be contaminated with heavy metals. Make sure it does not contain fillers and that the fish they are using are listed on the bottle,” says Kylie Ivanir, MS, RD of Within Nutrition.
If you are healthy and are not at increased risk of heart disease, consuming a balanced diet that includes fish can provide you with adequate amounts of omega-3s. If you do not eat fish, have elevated levels of triglycerides (fat in the blood), have had a recent heart attack, or if you have chronic heart failure, you may benefit from a fish oil supplement.
You might know that fish and, in particular, the omega-3 fats they contain, DHA and EPA, are an important part of a healthy diet . EPA and DHA are involved in fetal development, brain and eye health, and heart and blood vessel health. Our bodies produce only small amounts of EPA and DHA, so we have to get these fats from the diet or from supplements.
Form: Liquid | EPA: 330 mg/svg | DHA: 210 mg/svg | Recommended Use: Take 1 ½ teaspoons daily straight from the spoon or mixed into food of choice
This fish oil supplement contains moderate amounts of omega-3s, with 330 milligrams of EPA and 210 milligrams of DHA. This supplement has been approved by ConsumerLab and is also dairy-free, sugar-free, and non-GMO.
Barlean’s Omega Pals Chirpin’ Slurpin’ Lemonade Flavor is a good option for kids because it comes in liquid form and can be added to foods like yogurt, smoothies, or oatmeal. The lemon flavor masks any fishy taste, and the supplement can be given to children ages 1 year old and older.
If your kids do not like eating fish, and you want them to get a serving of omega-3 fats, ask a healthcare provider if a fish oil supplement may be beneficial.
Can be given to children 1 year and up
Kirkland Signature's fish oil contains a low dose of omega-3s, with a total of 250 milligrams of EPA and DHA combined. While it is not enteric-coated to help reduce a fishy aftertaste, the lack of coating may lead to increased absorption. This supplement is approved by both USP and ConsumerLab to ensure freshness and lack of contaminants.
If size and number of pills are less of a concern, and you are looking for an affordable option, Kirkland Signature Natural Fish Oil may a good choice. The bottle contains 400 softgels, which comes out to only a few cents per dose. The suggested serving is one softgel taken twice daily. While the softgels are large, they are also narrow, which may make them easier to swallow.
Nature Made fish oil supplements contain a higher concentration of the omega-3 EPA, with 683 milligrams per pill, so you should check with a healthcare provider to ensure this is the right dose for you. We also like that Nature Made fish oil supplements are third-party tested by USP and ConsumerLab, two of our most trusted third-party organizations.
Some fish oil supplements have the unpleasant side effect of a fishy aftertaste. Nature Made fish oil supplements are enteric-coated, which helps slow the release of the fish oil, reducing reactions such as fishy burps (NatureMade advertises them as burp-less!). These pills are a bit larger in size, but you only need to take one per day with water and a meal.
Deva Vegan Omega-3 DHA is a vegan softgel containing 300-420 milligrams per serving of plant-based DHA. It is a bit lower in EPA, with 150-210 milligrams per serving. If you have a hard time swallowing pills, one thing to note is that this pill is on the larger side, at around 1.1 inches. It does contain orange oil and rosemary extract for a light flavor, and since it does not contain any fish, you do not have to worry about a fishy aftertaste. This supplement has been tested and approved by ConsumerLab, one of our most trusted third-party testers.
If you are vegetarian, vegan, or have a fish allergy, you might be wondering how you can get enough omega-3 fats. The good news is that fish get their omega-3 fats from eating plankton, and the plankton get their omega-3 fats from algae. You, therefore, have the option of going straight to the source and using an algal oil supplement.
One teaspoon of Wild Fish Oil contains moderate amounts of omega-3s, with 430 milligrams of EPA and 333 milligrams of DHA. It is unique in that it also contains 240 milligrams of DPA. Though the benefits of DPA have not been studied extensively in humans yet, initial research suggests that DPA may help reduce inflammation and improve certain factors connected to cardiovascular and neural health. It also may help store EPA and DHA.
In case you do not like swallowing pills, Wild Fish Oil is a lower concentration liquid fish oil supplement option. We like that Wild Fish Oil has been tested by ConsumerLab and is certified by Friend of the Sea. We also like that this supplement is flavored with lemon, rosemary , and vanilla to prevent a fishy taste.
Nordic Naturals fish oil supplements are free from any artificial additives or fillers. They are flavored with a subtle lemon flavor, so you do not have to worry about a fishy taste. They are also verified non-GMO. Given the high concentration of omega-3s, be sure to check with a healthcare provider to ensure this is the right dose for you.
This fish oil supplement contains a high concentration of omega-3 fats. It includes 1,460 milligrams of EPA and 1,010 milligrams of DHA in the triglyceride form, which some research has shown is the better absorbed form, though other research shows that the different forms are absorbed similarly.
Nordic Naturals is a long-time trusted brand in the world of fish oil supplements. We like that the company provides a Certificate of Analysis for each product, which verifies it has been third party tested to ensure it is free from contaminants and heavy metals . They are approved by ConsumerLab, and they partner with Friend of the Sea, an organization that ensures sustainable fishing. To top it all off, Nordic Naturals Ultimate Omega Liquid is easy to take, with a serving size of just one liquid teaspoon.
Dose may not be appropriate for all consumers
GNC Triple Strength Fish Oil Minis contain a high concentration of the omega-3s EPA and DHA, with 734 milligrams of EPA and 266 milligrams of DHA per dose. It is best to consult with a healthcare provider to determine the appropriate dose for your needs. These fish oil supplements are tested and approved by ConsumerLab, one of our top third-party organizations, to ensure they are fresh and free from heavy metals.
In addition to the lack of aftertaste, we like that GNC fish oil supplements come in a smaller size. Fish oil softgels are usually fairly large, ranging in size from half an inch to over an inch, which some people may find hard to swallow. GNC Triple Strength Fish Oil Mini supplements are smaller, making it easy to add these into your daily routine. The suggested dose is two mini softgel capsules to be taken with food. However, if you prefer to take only one capsule, the manufacturer of this supplement also produces a large softgel option.
GNC Triple Strength Fish Oil minis provide a high concentration of fish oil in two small softgels with no fishy aftertaste. They are enteric-coated, meaning they are coated in a material that allows for delayed release of the oils, helping maintain a neutral flavor.
Final Verdict GNC Triple Strength Fish Oil Minis are our top pick for a fish oil supplement. They are enteric-coated to help reduce a fishy aftertaste and contain a high concentration of the omega-3s EPA and DHA to support heart health. The smaller size of the capsules makes them easier to swallow.
How We Select Supplements
Our team works hard to be transparent about why we recommend certain supplements; you can read more about our dietary supplement methodology here.
We support supplements that are evidence-based and rooted in science. We value certain product attributes that we find to be associated with the highest quality products. We prioritize products that are third-party tested and certified by one of three independent, third-party certifiers: USP, NSF, or ConsumerLab.
It's important to note that the FDA does not review dietary supplements for safety and effectiveness before they go to market. Our team of experts has created a detailed, science-backed methodology to choose the supplements we recommend.
The Confusing Research on Fish Oil Supplements
While the benefits of regular fish consumption are clear, the research is mixed on the potential benefits of taking fish oil supplements if you have one of the following conditions.
Cancer
Researchers have studied whether intakes of omega-3s might reduce cancer risk due to their anti-inflammatory properties. Research shows fish oil supplementation may be associated with a reduced risk of ductal carcinoma, a type of breast cancer, colorectal cancers, and early stages of prostate cancer. Other studies have found no association between omega-3 intake and cancer risk, and some have even found omega-3s might increase the risk of certain cancers such as prostate cancer.
Pregnancy
DHA is critical for development of the brain and retina in the fetus and in infants. Consuming 8 to 12 ounces of low mercury fish per week during pregnancy is associated with positive infant health outcomes. There is some evidence that, among those with low omega-3 intakes, DHA supplementation may reduce risk of premature birth. Research on omega-3 supplementation during pregnancy looking at the baby’s health and development, however, is mixed.
There is no Dietary Reference Intake for DHA during pregnancy.
Alzheimer’s, Dementia, and Cognitive Function
A 2012 review of 10 studies found that omega-3 supplementation does not affect cognitive function in healthy older adults or in those with Alzheimer’s disease. However, for those with mild cognitive impairment, omega-3s may improve certain aspects of cognitive function, such as processing speed and attention, but more research is needed.
Studies regarding use of fish oil to manage dry eye disease are inconsistent. If you have dry eyes associated with contact lenses, fish oil supplementation may be beneficial, but more research is needed.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Fish oil has been studied for its use in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis symptoms since the intake of omega-3 fats can reduce some forms of inflammation. Some studies show fish oil may help reduce pain associated with rheumatoid arthritis when taken along with standard medication. Other studies suggest fish oil does not significantly affect symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, but it may reduce the amount of pain medication needed. However, an ideal dose has not been determined.
What to Look for In a Fish Oil Supplement
Third-Party Testing
Supplements that are third-party tested are sent to a lab where they are tested to ensure they contain what they say they contain and are not contaminated with specific high-risk, common contaminants. However, it’s important to note:
Third-party testing does not test to see if a product is effective or safe for everyone, and it does not ensure the supplement will not interact with other supplements or medications. Not all third-party testing is created equal. It is not uncommon for supplement companies to pay labs for certificates after conducting minimal to no testing. The third-party certifications we can trust are: ConsumerLab, NSF, and USP. However, these certifications are difficult to obtain and/or expensive, so many companies choose not to get their products tested by one of these three organizations. Sometimes products tested by these three companies are more expensive to try to offset the cost they pay for certification. Just because a supplement is not tested by one of these three companies does not mean it’s a bad product. We recommend doing some research on the reputability of the manufacturer and calling up the manufacturer and their testing lab to determine their protocols and decide if you feel comfortable consuming the supplement.
Third-party testing is helpful if you are concerned about the risk of fish contamination. Fish can accumulate toxins, including mercury, which can damage the nervous system. It can also accumulate dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which may cause cancer at low levels of exposure over time. However, these contaminants have generally not been found in dangerous levels in fish oil. This is likely because fish oils go through a purification process and because contaminants such as mercury bind to proteins, such as fish meat, and not oil.
While toxin contamination may be a low concern, fish oils can go rancid. This may not only cause an unpleasant odor and taste, but it can reduce safety and efficacy. It is best to choose a fish oil supplement that has been third-party tested to ensure the oil is still fresh. Be aware though that spoilage may still occur after the product is opened if it becomes exposed to air or excessive heat, so be sure to follow the manufacturer’s tips for proper storage.
Form
Fish oil supplements are available as softgels, capsules, liquids, and gummies. Fish oil supplements typically contain EPA, DHA, or both in varying concentrations. These omega-3s can occur in a few forms that are sometimes declared on the label:
Triglyceride: Omega-3 fats in fish oil naturally occur in a form called triglycerides. Some supplements contain this form, although in many other supplements the fish oil has been converted to other forms to purify, concentrate, or stabilize it.
Ethyl ester: This is one of the most common forms of fish oil in supplements and medications and is created by exposing the fish oil to ethanol to remove contaminants and concentrate the EPA and DHA. This may, however, slightly reduce the small amounts of vitamins that may be present in fish oil.
Re-esterified triglycerides: This form is made by chemically converting ethyl esters back to the original triglyceride form.
Monoglyceride: This form is made by breaking down the triglyceride so the omega-3 fats can be easily absorbed, although your body will do this naturally.
Research shows that when taken with a meal containing fat, each of these forms of fish oil will be equally absorbed over 24 hours. However, if you are taking fish oil with a small meal or no food, you may want to choose forms listed as triglyceride or re-esterified triglyceride.
Note that cod or fish liver oils are not necessarily a good substitute for fish oil supplements, as these are high in vitamins A and D. One tablespoon contains about 4,050 micrograms of retinol (the animal form of vitamin A) and 1,360 IU of vitamin D. Exceeding 1,500 to 7,500 micrograms of retinol and 10,000 IU of vitamin D can pose negative health outcomes.
Ingredients & Potential Interactions
It is essential to carefully read the ingredient list and nutrition facts panel of a supplement to know which ingredients and how much of each ingredient is included relative to the recommended daily value of that ingredient. Please bring the supplement label to a healthcare provider to review the different ingredients contained in the supplement and any potential interactions between these ingredients and other supplements and medications you are taking.
Fish oil supplements typically contain EPA, DHA, and may also contain other fats such as omega-7 (also called palmitoleic acid), oleic acid, or an omega-6 fat called GLA. Some fish oil supplements contain added vitamins, such as vitamin E, to help stabilize the oils to prevent them from going rancid.
Fish oil supplements can have a blood-thinning effect and may lower blood pressure slightly. If you are taking blood-thinning or blood pressure lowering medication, be sure to discuss fish oil supplement use with a healthcare provider.
Fish Oil Dosage
Doses of fish oil supplementation vary and will depend on why you are using them. A general dose is around 300 to 500 milligrams of EPA and DHA, but some treatments may involve higher doses, up to 4,000 milligrams per day. Consult with a healthcare provider to determine the appropriate dosage for you.
The National Institute of Health has established Adequate Intakes for the omega-3 Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA), which must be obtained from the diet. Our bodies convert very small amounts of ALA to EPA and DHA. There are no established specific intake recommendations for EPA and DHA.
According to the National Institutes of Health, the Adequate Intakes for Omega-3s are as follows:
Birth to 6 months: 0.5 g
7 to 12 months*: 0.5 g
1-3 years*: 0.7 g
4-8 years**: 0.9 g
9-13 years**: Males - 1.2 g, Females - 1.0 g
14-18 years**: Males - 1.6 g, Females - 1.1 g
19-50 years**: Males - 1.6 g, Females - 1.1 g
51+ years**: Males - 1.6 g, Females - 1.1 g
Pregnant women: 1.4 g
Lactating women: 1.3 g
*As total omega-3s
**As ALA
How Much is Too Much?
High amounts of EPA and DHA may suppress the immune system. The US Food and Drug Administration recommends no more than 5 grams of EPA and DHA from supplements daily unless a healthcare provider indicates otherwise.
Side effects from fish oil supplements are usually mild but can include an unpleasant taste in the mouth, bad breath, nausea, diarrhea, headache, fishy burps, heartburn, and smelly sweat.
All About Fish Oil
What is fish oil?
Fish oil is, well, oil from fish.
It’s rich in two specific groups of omega-3 fatty acids known as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). DHA and EPA, along with alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), found in things like flax and walnuts, fall under the subheading of omega-3 fatty acids. (See All About Healthy Fats for more.)
EPA and DHA are often cited as being the beneficial components of fish oil. EPA and DHA actually originate in algae, which is the base of the food chain for fish. Fish consume these algae and thus concentrate high amounts of the beneficial fats.
Why is fish oil so important?
Overall health
Omega-3s are very important for health, including:
cardiovascular function
nervous system function and brain development
immune health
Research shows that low DHA consumption (and blood levels) is associated with memory loss, difficulty concentrating, Alzheimer’s disease and other mood problems.
Cell membranes
Essential fats have an integral role in promoting cell health.
Cells in the human body have a fatty membrane (known as the lipid bilayer). This membrane is semi-permable: It regulates what gets into the cell and what goes out of it. The fluidity of cell membranes depend on the fatty acid composition of the diet.
If the fatty membranes surrounding brain cells are relatively fluid, as they are with lots of omega-3s, then messages from neurochemicals such as serotonin can be transmitted more easily.
On the other hand, if people eat too many saturated fats (which are solid at room temperature), without enough omega-3s, then these membranes become more rigid, and stuff can’t get through.
Cells also require these good fats for repair and regeneration.
With lots of omega-3s, muscle cells become more sensitive to insulin, while fat cells decrease. This may mean that the body can divert more nutrients to muscle tissue.
Metabolic health
Finally, DHA and EPA can increase metabolism by increasing levels of enzymes that boost calorie-burning ability.
What you should know
We can’t make omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in our bodies, so we need to get them from our diets.
Omega-3 to omega-6 ratio
It’s easy for us to get omega-6 fatty acids. These are found in plant oils, for instance, and factory-raised animals (which are fed a lot of corn and soy) will usually have a lot of omega-6 too. (See All About Plant Oils for more.)
But it’s hard for people in Western countries to get omega-3 fats from dietary sources. We eat a lot more processed foods and a lot less wild game and plants than our ancestors did. And we don’t usually eat things like snails and insects, which are also high in omega-3s, although many folks worldwide still eat these as part of traditional diets. We rely heavily now on omega-6 vegetable oils.
We evolved with a fat intake ratio of about 1:1 omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids. Now, it’s closer to 1:20.
Because omega-3s and omega-6s compete with each other for space in cell membranes and the attention of enzymes, the ratio matters more than the absolute amount consumed of either fat.
Fat heads
When it comes to fat intake, you (and your cells) really are what you eat.
Years of research has linked lower fat diets with aggression, depression, and suicidal ideation. Over time, the cells in your brain take on the dietary fat you consume. DHA is the active fat in the brain, and especially important throughout developmental stages.
Depletion of fish oil resources
About 1/3 of the world’s total fish catch goes toward fish meal/oil for farmed fish and other animals. Many open ocean fish like menhaden, anchovies, herring and mackerel are caught mainly for this purpose. Competition for fish meal/oil can drive up the price of fish, which pushes this food source out of reach for many of the world’s poorest.
For more, see All About Eating Seafood.
Summary and recommendations
Aim for 3-9 daily grams of total fish oil (about 1-3 grams of EPA + DHA) per day from a supplement company that doesn’t contribute directly to the depletion of fish (e.g., they use primarily fish discards).
Look for small-fish-based formulations (e.g. herring, mackerel). Small fish are lower on the food chain and less likely to accumulate environmental toxins. Or choose krill oil or algae oil (see All About Algae Supplements).
Avoid cod liver oil.
Avoid trans fats; they can interfere with EPA & DHA in the body.
If you find yourself using higher amounts of corn, cottonseed, and sunflower oil (omega-6 rich vegetable oils), aim to use fewer of those, which will negatively alter your fatty acid ratio.
For extra credit
The amount of DHA in a woman’s diet determines the amount of DHA in her breast milk.
Omega-3 fats are not typically used in processed foods because of their tendency to oxidize.
NIH researchers have said that the billions we spend on anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and acetaminophen is money spent to undo the effects of too much omega-6 fat in the diet.
It’s hypothesized that populations may drift toward a lower omega-3 intake because a faster metabolism (from high omega-3 intake) increases the need for food and the possibility of hunger.
Fish oil seems to be safe (except for those on blood thinning medications).
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References
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